1) Computer Systems (Hardware, CPU, Memory)

I. The CPU and the Fetch-Execute Cycle
• The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer.
• Components: Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Registers.
• Fetch-Execute Cycle: fetch, decode, execute, store.
• Factors affecting performance: clock speed, cache size, cores.

II. Memory and Storage
• RAM: volatile, random access, stores running programs and data.
• ROM: non‑volatile, read‑only, stores BIOS.
• Virtual memory: using secondary storage as extra RAM.
• Secondary storage: HDD, SSD, optical, flash.

III. Input/Output Devices
• Input: keyboard, mouse, sensor, scanner.
• Output: monitor, printer, speaker, actuator.

IV. Embedded Systems
• Computers built into other devices (e.g., microwave, car).
• Often use microcontrollers.

V. Performance Comparisons
• Comparing CPU performance: clock speed, number of cores, cache size.